The golden rule when positioning a camp is “look up, look down”. Look up into the tree for dead or broken branches that could fall on you during the night. Look down for the tell tale ripple patterns in leaf litter or soil, indicating common water channels in wet weather. Also don’t camp on old track ways as the compacted wheel ruts also form very effective water channels. If possible choose a flat level piece of ground. I find that I sleep ok if my legs are pointing down a slight slope, but not if they are up or across a slope, also find an area with a slight dip in the middle (or dig one out) for your hip bone i.e. contour the ground to your body shape. Similarly, if possible find a sheltered location (tree / bush cover) away from water to avoid being woke up by insects or leaves blowing through the camp. One final point don’t position your camp at the base of a slope as this forms a cold air trap and is likely to have heavy dew in the morning. Therefore, spend a little time positioning the camp accordingly, to ensure a comfortable, safe, dry night. Tip, never sleep in the shelter of a uproot stump as these have been known to self right if the trees branches are removed i.e. snapped or rot off.
Figure 2.1 : Tarp (top), hanging hoops, Prusik tensioning knot (bottom)
A waterproof flysheet, commonly called a Tarp (tarpaulin), Basha (British army, I believe the word has its origins in India, an improvised shelter made of bamboo with a thatched roof), Hoochie (Australian army). This simple, light weight shelter is very versatile and easy to put up. When camping in woodland it can be hung between two trees, as shown in figure 2.1 (this example is a British army DPM version approx 8’ x 7’). The main line is tied to the first tree at chest height (lower down in bad weather) using a Evenk slippery figure of eight hitch, sliding the knot tight up to the tree (figure 2.2). The other end using a tarp taut hitch, applying sufficient tension to keep the tarp from sagging (figure 2.2). The tarp is suspended from the main line via metal or material hoops. Added four brass hoops to the central reinforcing strap (bottom figure 2.1), looped under handles and sewed into position with button cotton, the theory being that this would allow the tarp to hang better (not sure it does, but works fine). At each end there is a Prusik knot (cordage, knot section) allowing you to position and tension the tarp on the main line. Tip, move the prusik knots in a little when you are tensioning the main line i.e. to make sure you are tensioning the main line and not the tarp. The corner guide ropes are tied to convenient points using a midshipman’s or a slippery sliding loop knot (figure 2.3) e.g. improvised wooden tent pegs, rocks, trees, or logs etc. The further away the guide ropes are positioned the flatter the tarp will hang, maximising your view when under the tarp. In bad weather the guidelines can be positioned closer in, to give more protection. Tip, chose white or reflective main and guide ropes and hank any spare cord, to help reduce accidents in the dark. However, saying this I have switched to a green cordage to match the tarp. I now carry four tent pegs (split birch), which have wrapped round them the side guide ropes (makes life simpler). These are attached to the tarp using a loop and peg (figure eight knot) as shown in figure 2.1.1 (quick release). To stow the tarp, first remove the side guide ropes, wrapping each around a peg, secure free end with 4 – 5 turns and finish by placing the loop over the top of the peg (snug fit). An alternative to wrapping the cord around a peg is to hank the cord. This is done by wrapping the cord around your thumb and little finger in a figure of eight actions. Then the last 30cm of the cord is wrapped around the bundle, tucking the free end under the last couple of turns. Tip, start hanking the cord at the figure of eight loop, such that when attached to the tarp the cord can simply be pulled out. I find this tarp a little more difficult to stow than others, as it has thick reinforced edges. Thin tarps can be simply pleated, folded in half whilst hanging from the main line and then wrapped / compressed using the main line into a small bundle. This tarp needs a little more effort, first free one end of the main line and pull tarp off, folding it in half and half again as it is removed. Lay the tarp on the ground, fold one edge to the middle, then fold the tarp in half again such that the reinforced edges are not all on one edge, roll up and with a little persuasion should now fit into its bag. The main tarp line is detached from the tarp and stored separately as this line is not required for all configurations. Store pegs, main line and tarp in the top pocket of the rucksack for easy access.
An alternative to buying a tarp is to do a bit of DIY, as shown in figure 2.1a. Made from an old builders tarp, the kind you can get from a builders merchant or DIY store. Smaller than the previous example, approx 6’ x 5’. I made this tarp as a supplement to the main tarp i.e. as a windbreak, small shelter for cooking, folded it’s something to sit on (surprisingly warm, folds down to A4 size) and to wrap your rucksack in at night keeping it off the damp ground and dry. To simplify construction its cut out of the corner of a larger tarp allowing the existing metal eyelets and string reinforcements to be used on two of the edges. The other two cut edges are hemmed by gluing the edge over using Evo-stik impact adhesive. The corners are then re-enforced by gluing over a rectangle (18cn – 9cm) of spare tarp material, forming three layers. Tip, cut out a paper template to simplify this job, when gluing take your time as you cant adjust the surfaces when they come into contact. Ropes are attached to the corners using snap and fix eyelets. To add these remove the washer and use this to mark the hole’s position (2-3cm from each edge). Cut this out using a knife tip, be careful when cutting these as its easy to accidentally slip and slice through the tarp. Push through the eyelet base, pushing the tarp down and around it before clicking on the top half, locking it in position using a mallet.
Figure 2.1a : DIY Tarp
If two suitably spaced trees can not be found, poles can be used to replace one or both trees. The main tarp I have has metal reinforced holes at each corner and along its edge. This allows a number of possible configurations as shown in figure 2.4. If possible each pole should be pushed into the ground, or a hole dug using a digging stick, to give the structure more stability. If a suitable pole can not be found (normally when you most need one) shorter poles can be lashed together as shown in figure 2.5. The wood that will form the main pole is placed in line and a shorter branch used to bridge the gap. Two whippings either side of the join secure the shorter branch (surgeons knot to finish), round pegs can be driven under the whippings to increase tension. The main advantage of a tarp is its light weight, and small size when rolled up. Its disadvantages are that it lacks privacy and protection against the bugs (good insect repellent required). As for tents ensure that the tarp is positioned at a safe distance form your fire to prevent sparks burning holes etc.
Figure 2.1.1 : Guide ropes
Figure 2.2 : Evenk slippery figure of eight hitch (left) and Tarp taut hitch (right)
Evenk slippery figure of eight hitch : twist hand over main line, use finger to pull free end loop through, tighten. Tarp taut hitch : wrap line around tree, tension, wrap free end around main line and back round, increase tension, form free end loop, tie a overhand knot around main line with loop, tighten, form another free end loop, pass through loop formed in overhand knot, tighten.
Figure 2.3 : Midshipman’s knot (left) and Slippery sliding loop knot (right)
Figure 2.4 : Tarp lean-to and Tarp tent
Figure 2.5 : Pole lashing
When im out I always carry on me (day or main rucksack) an orange survival bivi bag and a reflective foil blanket (figure 2.6). The bivi bag is just a thick gauge plastic bag that can be used as a water proof sleeping bag, reducing wind chill (forming a layer of warm air around the body). The foil blanket is a thin plastic sheet with a reflective aluminium layer, reflecting radiated heat back to the body. In an emergency combine the two and put on any spare cloths you have with you. If possible, gather a bed of bracken, leaves or pine branches to form an insulating layer between you and the ground (reduces conduction of body heat into the ground).
Figure 2.6 : Bivi bag and a reflective foil blanket
If no suitable natural shelter can be found e.g. rock overhang, tree bough etc. one can be constructed. The type of natural shelter produced will be dependent on the quality, quantity and type of natural resources available. Typically this will be a lean-to type arrangement constructed from wood and whatever thatching material is readily available (thatch needs to be thicker than you would think to keep rain out). I’ve made two types of natural shelter before; two and four person. The two person shelter construction steps are shown in figure 2.7, but like tent classifications, will sleep one person plus kit nicely. If possible the back forked stick should be high enough to provide sufficient height to allow a person to sit up in the shelter (approximately sternum height). Dig a hole for this stick, only needs to be deep enough to hold the stick in position (dug with a digging stick) during initial construction. When all the supporting branches are in place the main tripod is firmly held in position and is surprisingly strong. It can be difficult to find a suitable forked branch for the main back support, an alternative is to use a branch with a suitable side branch to form the notch. Tip, I was told that this type of branch is actually better as it is easier to hammer into the ground and less likely to split. Although not required I like to use a length of strong nylon cord to secure the two side poles in position. The side poles when in position need to be 0.5 – 1m longer than the person using the shelter (to take into account the height of your feet) and relatively thick (6 – 8 cm) to take the load of the top and side branches (my test is can they take my weight). Tip, I was told that its best to have the side pole’s thick end at the top i.e. resting in the fork, such that if the thin end snaps the shelter does not completely collapse, but only reduces in length. When building the shelter start at the back, alternating the placement of the side branches, don’t place too many on one side at once as this will cause the structure to collapse.
When the wooden frame has been completed, a layer of dead leaves is used as a thatch. Any broad leaf, deciduous leaf litter will do, however, beech leaves give the best insulation. I was told that the depth of thatch should be an arms length (wasn’t quite able to achieve this, perhaps half that depth, especially at the top). Collecting leaf litter is one of the most time consuming jobs, the easiest way I found is to make a brush. Choose a long central stick (1 inch thick) and tie on a number of thin branches (conifer) such that the main branch passes through the brush head. This allows the main branch to be used to lever up compacted leaf litter and the thin side branch to sweep loosened leaves into a pile. When placing the side branches on the structure it is important to ensure that there are no spaces between the side and top branches (or only very small ones). This was the main failing of the first shelter I made, resulting in a slow but steady shower of leaf litter during the night. Therefore, pay particular attention to the placement of branches around the head area, use a double layer of branches i.e. the second layer of branch fill in the gaps of the first. Apart from this the shelter is very strong and warm (too warm in the summer). Figure 2.7.1 shows alternative methods of constructing natural shelters taken from a Swedish Army manual. The top row shows a classic lean-to shelter, constructed between two suitably spaced trees by lashing a cross bar in place at sternum height (with roots), supporting side and back branches, thatched with conifer branches, bark, moss, turf etc. From what I could translate, the angle of the lean-to can be increased to capture more heat from the fire and to increase its ability to shed rain water. However, this has the disadvantage of making the shelter more susceptible to varying wind and rain directions. An important addition to any shelter is a suitable bed, minimising heat conduction into the ground. The example in figure 2.7.1 is constructed from overlapping pine branches pushed into the ground to form a springy mattress, trapping a layer of insulating air.
Figure 2.7.1 : Other shelter designs, sleeping platform
The four man shelter uses a tepee style construction, the general rule is that you need one more pole than you have people i.e. five poles. The main poles should be approximately twelve feet long (tall enough to allow you to stand up easily when finished) and strong enough to support a persons weight when in position. The top of the poles are laid out three on one side and two on the other (as shown in figure 2.8), secured together with roots or nylon cord using a standard tripod lashing (cordage section). The main frame is then lifted into position, one person lifting each pole (centre pole left free). The space in between the poles will form the sleeping bays and the door. The door poles can be placed closer together and should be positioned facing away from the prevailing wind. The angle of the main poles determines the size of the tepee and should be positions to a 60 degree angle as spruce bows will be used as thatch (to shed rain correctly the general rule is use 45 degree for deciduous and 60 degree for spruce). At this stage, whilst you still have easy access it’s a good idea to construct the beds. Each bed is made from a raise platform, keeping you off the damp ground and away from the central fire. At each main pole stack two logs (angled to the centre) secured into position using four posts hammered into the ground. These form the platforms legs and should be at least as wide as the person using it. Then lay branches between these legs to form the sleeping platforms, should be at a comfortable sitting height. Tip, ensure that these branches are trimmed of any sharp side branch stubs, also if possible choose thicker outer branches for the platform to help stop you and your bedding rolling off during the night. The mattress is formed from a thick layer of spruce bows. Starting at the head end lay these bows with the thick end pointing down into the platform and away from the head end, such that when you have finished all the bare ends are at the feet end of the bed. Tip, ensure these bows are not laid upside down as this will cause the pine needle to point upward into you, also make sure that the bows are spread evenly across the bed and not piled up in the middle as this can cause you to roll off during the night. Finally a layer of soft rushes can be laid across the spruce to give an additional layer of cushioning (not in direct contact with the pine needles). Tip, don’t use bracken for bedding as this can contain ticks.
Next cross beams are tied to the outside of the main poles at sternum height. As with the two man shelter the side walls are now constructed, alternating the placement of branches against the cross beams, don’t place too many on one side at once as this will cause the structure to collapse. When complete a layer of leaf litter is placed around the base of the tepee. This should be at least 50cm higher than the sleeping platform to form a wind break. The top half of the tepee is thatched with a layer of spruce bow. When thatching start at the bottom over lapping the leaf litter layer. Push these bows into the structure with the thick end pointing toward the top and bow upside down i.e. such that the pine needle point upwards, as this will help shed water better. Repeat this as high as you can reach, it doesn’t matter if there is a hole at the top as this will form a chimney for the fire. When complete a fire can be lit in the middle of the tepee for heating and cooking. A pot hanger can be formed by pushing a branch through the tepee, positioned on the cross beams. When we camped in this shelter we only had woollen blankets so you did need a fire during the night to keep warm. I do confess it’s a little strange going to sleep at night will a fire less than an arms distance away from you, however, you do get used to it. Tip, do not do this will a sleeping bag as sparks could set these alight, also store a good supply of split logs, un-split logs and kindling under your sleeping platform to feed or restart the fire during the night, finally pack a pair of garden gloves as spruce needles can seriously cut up your hands (also the resins a pain to get off).
Figure 2.8 : Four man shelter
In the summer almost any cheap sleeping bag and roll mat (closed cell foam sleeping pad, thermal insulation from the ground) will do, doesn’t get that cold in the UK during the summer (generally true). Combine these with a bivi bag to keep off any rain (a waterproof outer bag normally made of Gortex). When sleeping in a bivi bag condensation can form, therefore, if possible open the sleeping bag and turn the bivi bag inside out to air before packing. Tip, ive been told that you shouldn’t fold a bivi bag as repeated folding in the same area can cause the waterproofing to fail, use a stuff sack. Roll mats can be placed either inside or outside of the bivi bag, i normally have it on the outside to protect the bivi bag from damage (roll mats are cheaper to replace), however, saying this there is an argument for having it on the inside as it prevents you rolling off it during the night. When buying a roll mat get the thicker variety, may just be psychological, but they do give a better nights sleep. The big disadvantage of a closed cell foam sleeping pad is its size (compared to an inflatable one). This makes storage in the rucksack almost impossible, especially on longer trips when space is at a premium. The roll mat can be secured on the top or bottom of the rucksack, however, this increases its width making walking through woods etc a bit more difficult. Therefore, the best position is to tie it vertically to the back of the rucksack. Tip, to secure the roll mat use two lengths of thick cord secured with a loop and peg as shown in figure 2.10. However, saying this I do find it better to secure the roll mat to the top of the rucksack when travelling on a train, as its easier to carry a rucksack side on down the aisle and stow in the overhead racks (still a pain). In spring and autumn a slightly thicker sleeping bag is much appreciated i.e. a 3 seasons version, but again depends on the weather. Be guided by a ‘reliable’ weather forecast and the comfort, low, temperature ratings of your sleeping bag. In cold weather choose a sleeping bag with hood and shoulder pull cords to prevent warm air escaping. Whatever sleeping bag is chosen a compression sack is a must. These greatly reduce the sleeping bags volume, making packing / storage in the rucksack a lot simpler. A compression sack can also be used as an improvised pillow, stuffed with any spare clothing or coat etc. Another, extra that can be of use is a sleeping bag liner, these simplify washing and depending on their thickness can be used to give extra warmth. Finally, the sleeping bag and spare clothes should be stored in a waterproof rucksack liner. These are simple to use, just fold the top over three times and secure the clip (remove all air first), ensuring that you have a dry night and a new set of cloths what ever the weather.
Figure 2.10 : roll mat, sleeping, compression, waterproof and bivi bags
Figure 2.11 : Mark-1 Hammock
Figure 2.11.1 : Mark-2 Hammock
An alternative to sleeping on the ground is the hammock as shown in figure 2.11. This example was my first attempt based on a design in the cordage section, a little on the narrow side but functional. Combined with a tarp, these items form a very effective and flexibly system. The main advantage for me being that you no longer need to worry about finding a camp site which has level ground, free of rocks and roots. All that is required are two suitably spaced trees (living, 10 – 15ft apart), adjusting the tarp’s and hammock’s attachment points accordingly. The other benefit of using a hammock is that it raises you off the ground, which is usually a lot more comfortable and warmer than sleeping on the floor. Also it removes the danger of been woken up by flooding, ants, beetles, furry friends and ever present slug and snail slim attack. Tip, although you are off the ground its still a good idea to line the hammock with a roll mat for insulation. To fix the hammock find two suitably spaced trees, the rule of thumb seems to be of approximately 4 inch in diameters i.e. to be safe. Tie the hammock to the trees as you would a tarp, ensuring that the hammock is well tensioned to prevent excessive sagging. To get into the hammock, spread it open in the centre, one hand holding each side. With your back to the hammock slowly sit down into it (testing those knots and ropes) pulling the netting underneath you as you sit. Once you are sitting in it, lift your legs in one at a time and swivel your body around.
Figure 2.13 : Falconer's knot
Falconer's knot : hold the free end between two finger, pass under main line, insert thumb above finger, twist the thumb down and finger up, pass fingers through loop formed around the thumb, remove fingers and replace with thumb, pull thumb up tighten loop, form a loop in the free end, passing it through the thumb loop, pull tight and repeat forming a chain of loops, passing the free end through the final loop and pull tight.
Figure 2.14 : Ed Speer's four wrap knot
Ed Speer's four wrap knot : wrap the free end around the main line and pull tight (the same as the Tarp taut hitch) and repeat three or four times, finally form a loop in the free end and tuck under the first loop wrapped around the tree i.e. pass it through the ‘V’ shaped gap between the main line and the tree and pull round, trapping the free end when loaded.
Alternative knots are shown in figures 2.12 - 2.14, adding an additional half hitch, or turn around the tree to any of these techniques is always a good idea i.e. just to make sure the rope doesn’t slip down the trunk, or that the knots bind securely. Tie the hammock at stomach or sternum height to prevent bottoming out. Chose a good nylon rope to attach the hammock to the trees, I’ve had cheaper rope snap on me, however, this does remind you what can happen, therefore, don’t hang the hammock too high and ensure that if the worst does happen the ground beneath is clear of dangers. I’ve read that one possible problem that can occur is that rain water can run done the rope into the hammock. To prevent this a drip line can be formed by tying the ropes free end above the metal ring using a simple over hand knot (allowing the rope to loop downwards). Now if rain water was to run down the rope, the knot will deflect this water down this spare rope.
Edit:
Although it may seem like an easy option and the hammock is an extremely versatile piece of kit, you do need to know your knots and a good imagination may be necessary in order to rig one under a tarp - in fact they both have their own different challenges. The ones I own are made by DD Hammocks. I also have a couple of their tarps, as they are light, large and very good value.
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