Cordage (string, cord, rope) is a resource taken for granted today. However, to produce cordage in the field from natural fibres can take a significant amount of time (especially long lengths of thin strong cord). There are two main methods of producing a cord: twisting and plaiting. Normally twisting is used to produce an initial cord, which can be plaited or twisted into a larger diameter cord or rope. A number of different plants or inner bark fibres can be used e.g. nettle and inner Willow bark. The cordage produced from these fibres are not as strong as there commercial versions so a larger diameter cord will be required. To prevent cracking and breakage, care should be taken when tying a lashing or a knot, not to bend the cord too sharply. One solution is to moisten the cord, increasing its flexibility. The disadvantage of this technique is that water as well as softening the cord also causes the fibres to swell increasing its diameter, so that when the cord dries, tension in lashing or knot will be reduced. This is not a big disadvantage for figure eight or bowline knots as when loaded they will re-tighten.
The outer fibres of the common nettle can be used to produce a strong thin cord. Firstly the leaves must be removed. This can be done by wrapping the stem with a cloth, pulling it quickly from bottom to top, rubbing off the leaves and stings from the stem. The fear of being stung is worse than the sting itself, however, if stung crush up a dock leaf with a little water to treat effected area (I’ve been told it can also be used for insect bites). The stems are then split with a knife, opened and flattened. Alternatively, the stem can be gently crushed with the butt of a knife, then using your thumb, opened and flattened. Next the stem is bend over a finger (inner core on top near a leaf stem), allowing the outer fibres to be gentle pulled away from the hard inner core. The outer fibres can then be dried until needed.
To twist the fibres into a cord, slightly moisten two fibre strands (not too much water as this will cause them to swell, resulting in a loose twist when dry). When held in the middle, one strand should be an inch shorter at each end than the other, such that when a new strand is added to the cord there will be an overlap (maintaining cord strength). Holding the two strands together, one end in each hand, between your thumb and finger, twist in the middle until a kink is formed. Then holding both ends in one hand between thumb and finger twist the kink gently to produce the cord. Pull the cord up, through thumb and finger an inch, then twist both strands in the same direction by rolling them between the thumb and finger, increasing tension. When no more tension can be added, twist the kinked end in the opposite direction again to produce a cord. When a strand runs out, join another strand by twisting a new strand on (same direction). When finished tie an overhand knot in the end to stop the cord unwrapping.
Figure 4.0 : Nettle, Dock, Thistle and Willow herb (rosebay, common)
Figure 4.1 : Split nettle stem
Figure 4.2 : Initial bend & pull off outer fibre
Figure 4.3 : Twisted nettle cord
An alternative to nettles are thistles. Clean the stem of leaves and thorns using the back of a knife. The outer fibres are again used and can be removed in the same way as for nettles. For thistles I find that the fibres come away more cleanly if the stems are gentle crushed with the butt of a knife first. If the inner core is proving difficult to remove, lay the opened stem on a board (core upwards) and scrape clean with a knife. Another good source of plant fibres is the inner bark of Willow, as shown in figure 4.4. Using the back of a knife (ground square), scrape off the outer green bark (clean the back of the knife regularly). When all of the outer bark has been removed, slit the inner bark with a knife (top to bottom), run your thumb down the slit to remove the bark (easier in spring and summer when the branch is full of sap). This can now be cut into strips and twisted into cord (will need to be moistened if dry). Tip chose a long branch with few side stems, to produce long strips of fibres. Another technique to soften and strength the bark fibres is to simmer it in a solution of wood ash and the outer bark scrapings for half an hour. To my understanding boiling allows the tannins in the outer bark to preserve the fibres and remove unwanted soft tissue. The wood ash forms an alkaline solution, neutralising the acids found in the bark, again increasing its durability and flexibility. Finally, a traditional way to preserve natural cordage is to apply beeswax, this helps inhibit desiccation and has an anti-bacterial quality too. The bark fibres can be used twisted or in strips as shown in figure 4.4.1. When using strips of bark you have to be careful not to bend the cord too sharply as this will cause cracking (which can making tying knots difficult). The best technique is secure the free end under a couple of turns (as you would starting a whipping) then tie off with a simple overhand or clove hitch.
Figure 4.4 : Twisted inner Willow bark cord
Figure 4.4.1 : Tying willow bark cord
Figure 4.5 : Thistle fibres and cord
The roots of many trees and plants can be used to make cordage e.g. pine, alder and birch. Luckily the best roots tend to be found near the surface i.e. ones that are thin and flexible. Using a digging stick or spade, gently dig down until a suitable root is found, exposing its whole length before removing. Tip don’t pull the root from the ground as it will snap. In general its best to remove the roots outer bark (not always required) using a brake (a thin stick with a 5cm split). Place the root into the split, hold the brake in one hand and pull the root through, peeling off the bark. Large roots can be split in half or quartered to obtain cordage of the required thickness. Splitting also has the advantage of producing a cord with a flat edge, giving a lashing more contact area and therefore strength. When splitting a root start the split with a knife then pull the two halves apart to continue the split. Tip, I find it easier to split a root if it held in tension (slight) i.e. secure the free end under your foot and pull taught whilst splitting. If the split starts to run off centre bend the thicker half more (a greater angle to the split) to re-centre, pay particular attention when approaching knots or bends, as these may need to be cut through using a knife. One root I’ve used a lot for bindings is marram grass roots as shown in figure 4.5.1. These can be easily found in sand dunes. Find an exposed area of sand with marram growing around its edge. The grass sends out runners, roots with young plants attached into this sand, dig down to expose the roots. These new, young roots are the best to use, older roots tend to be brittle. When splitting first remove any smaller roots and side stems with a knife, cutting against the angle of growth.
Figure 4.5.1 : Marram grass root cordage
Here are some of the knots I commonly use. Simple overhand knots e.g. turn and two half hitches, fisherman knot etc, could be used in most cases, however, each knot has different characteristic depending on whether it has been tied in cord made from natural or synthetic fibres i.e. breaking strain (knots reduces a cords strength), does it jam, or slip etc. Therefore, knowledge of a range of knots simplifies life a bit and gives you choices when needed.
Figure 4.6 : Clove hitch (left) and Prusik knot (right)
Clove hitch in the bight (middle of cord) : twist cord to form a loop, place over object, repeat (same direction of twist), tighten. Good for securing branches together, starting a lashing, as it locks without the need to be held in tension. If additional second loops are added it becomes a Ossel knot.
Figure 4.7 : Bowline (left) and Eskimo bowline (right)
Bowline : (rhyme, rabbit comes up out of the hole, runs around the tree and back down the hole) good knot for producing a loop which can be used to form a free running noose.
Figure 4.8 : Reef knot (left), Surgeons knot (middle) and Figure eight knot (right)
Reef knot : (rhyme, left over right, right over left) good general purpose knot, can slip if not in tension or if tied in synthetic cord. A surgeons knot has an additional twist to hold tension when the second stage is tied.
Figure 4.9 : Timber hitch (left) and Fisherman knot (right)
Fisherman knot : hold the two ends parallel, tie a overhand knot, turn cord around and repeat, pull tight
Figure 4.10 : Round Turn and two half hitches (left) and Hunters bend(right)
Hunters bend : good knot for synthetic materials, hold ends parallel, twist around finger, pass each end through the opposite side of the twist, tighten.
Plaits are an easy way to increase the strength of cordage produced by twisting.
Figure 4.11 : Three strand flat plait
Figure 4.12 : Four strand round plait
Four strand round plait : Two loops formed and linked, top cord is passed around the back of the plait and over the bottom cord, passing through the opposite loop, repeat
Figure 4.13 : Net making tools (net needles and mesh sticks)
When making a net the mesh size must be chosen to suit the application e.g. storage, fishing or trapping. In general, chose a mesh size half the size of the object being contained. When making a net a significant amount of cord is required, more than you would think. Tip, a larger mesh size is easier to tie, requires less knots and cord, therefore, quicker to make. Note, the width of the loaded needle determines the minimum mesh size, therefore, for small mesh sizes (around 1 cm) a net needle shown in the bottom frame of figure 4.13 will be needed. This type of long and thin needle, maximises the amount of cord that can be loaded whilst minimising its width. Net needles vary in length from about 15cm (general purpose work, repairing etc) to +30cm (can be loaded with a lot of cord for making large nets etc). To make a square net as shown in figure 4.14 (I’m left handed so reverse cord position / hands for right handed), you require a net needle and mesh stick, their construction is described in the section on cutting tools. First, load the net needle (shuttle) with cord and tie the free end to a fixed point e.g. a tent peg, your foot. To load the shuttle, hold the cord’s free end in the middle of the shuttle and loop it up and around the central (internal) pin, pull the cord down and around the base, rotating the shuttle over, repeat the process on the other side. When loading keep the cord tight and evenly spread across the shuttle. Next tie a figure eight knot or reef knot to form a loop (same size as mesh stick), then pass the net needle around the mesh stick and up through the loop, pulling it taught such that the loop rests on the top of the mesh stick. Tip, a common mistake is to pass the cord around the back of the mess stick first (rather than over the front), this prevents the loop from being pulled taught. Then cast a loop over the first loop, feed the needle under the first loop and up through the new loop. Pull the knot formed tight, ensuring that the knot does not form below the ‘V’ of the first loop. Tip, use the back finger to keep the loop in position and your thumb to guide the knot as it forms, also ensure that when you pull the loop back to the mesh stick, the ‘V’ formed has equal length sides. Tip, if the loop is held tight against the mesh stick the knot can be pulled through your thumb and finger un-sighted and will form correctly. Note, for the first cast of each row, tie around all three cords to form the re-enforce sides (although I have seen people cast the knot just over the mesh loop). When a row has been finished tie an additional loop through the last loop to increase the number of meshes in each row. Repeat, until the required number of meshes in a row have been formed i.e. the top triangle of the square. To form the bottom triangle, the number of meshes in a row must be reduced. This is achieved by instead of adding an additional loop at the end of each row, removing one. Pass the needle through the last two meshes and tie together, reducing the row length by one each time (first time tie in both ends i.e. the first two and last two loops). There are a number of methods of joining these meshes together :
I find the first method works fine, it doesn’t hurt to add an addition loop, but this will reduce the size of that mesh a little, which can skew the net a bit. A double knot can also be used when a knot is misformed i.e. forms below the ‘V’, casting the second knot secures the mesh preventing it from slipping. One problem I find when knitting a wide net is that as the you get to the end of a row it can become difficult to maintain mesh size i.e. they increase in size, making it difficult to pull the loop to the mesh stick. To help reduce this problem unload the mesh stick, then loop the last mesh around the mesh stick, retention and continue.
Figure 4.14 : Square netting
Figure 4.15 : Alternative net making technique, finished nets
Figure 4.16 : Tube netting
An alternative to square netting is to make a flat net, this can be made square, rectangular, or tied into a tube, as shown in figure 4.16. Start by looping the cord around the mesh stick twice and tie off with an overhand knot (forming a double sized loop). Then form a mesh chain by repeatedly casting a new loop on the mesh stick, as shown in the top left panel of figure 4.15. An easier method of casting on is shown in the bottom panel of figure 4.15, has a small disadvantage that the initial row can slip, but this is not usually a problem. Thread this chain through a string and tie to a fixed point as usual. Then knit the required number of rows to produce the square or rectangle i.e. the initial row determines the size of one of the axis. To form triangular shapes the number of meshes in a row can be increased by adding an additional loop at the end of the row or within the row as shown in figure 4.17. Note, when forming the initial chain form n+1 loops to produce the required n rows. When the required number of rows have been formed the net can be made into a tube by tying the two edges together (see netting 2 below). This is simplified using a spacing stick, allowing each row loop to be held in the correct position.
A common alterative to sleeping on the ground when using a tarp is the hammock i.e. you already have two suitably spaced trees to suspend it from. There are a number of different methods of making a hammock, from canvas sheeting to natural plant fibres, with netting being one of the most common. The example below is taken from the web by Rita Bartholomew. This design uses a 2" mesh stick and two 2" (external diameter) hammock rings, welded galvanised steel loops.
I’ve based my first hammock on this pattern, the key feature in this design is shown in figure 4.18. Initially the net is cast onto one of the steel rings, then instead of expanding the net at the end of a row, an additional loop is cast in the middle of the row. An additional two loops are then added in the previous and next row mesh positions in each subsequent row (the red dots in figure 4.18) until the penultimate mesh within a row is reached. When the desired width is reached (determined by the number of meshes initially cast on), rows are continued to be added until the hammock is long enough for the person using it. The row size is then reduced in size, mirroring the other end of the hammock i.e. reducing the row meshes by two for each row (joining two messes together). This process starts by joining the second / third meshes together and the penultimate third / second to last meshes together, in the first reduction row. The selected mesh pairs are then moved in by one for subsequent rows, moving the joined mesh pairs inwards towards the centre of the hammock (mirroring the other end). The hammock in figure 4.18 is made from two reels of parcel cord, twisted cotton fibres, holds a knot well and cheap to experiment with (only £1.50 a reel). I would of liked to of used a nylon cord of the same diameter i.e. stronger and does not rot, however, the nylon cords I’ve tired did not hold a knot well i.e. after a couple of days the knots begun to slip. My initial impressions of the cotton cord was that it was too thin, however, as the weight is spread over a number of cords its surprisingly strong (took the weight of two people without a problem). Note, I’ve got no idea what the maximum load for this hammock is, but as with any hammock get in slowly and use with caution. After completing my first attempt, I found the basic design worked well, however, it wasn’t wide enough for me (extending the main body would of helped a bit). For the next hammock I increased the number of meshes in the starting row to 17 and the mesh size to 2.25". Row 2 cast on a single row forming 16 meshes. Row 3 add a double loop on the 8th knot, on next rows add an additional loop on the preceding and following mesh positions up to the 17th row. This produces a hammock width of 43 meshes, double the previous. The main body of the hammock is extended for 20 rows, then taken in as before, back to a 17 mesh row, the last row formed around the second steel ring. The Mark-2 hammock’s dimensions look better (two nights work, costing approx £8.50 to make), but still not sure its quite right. When tested the main body’s width is now fine, more than enough to wrap around your hips. However, it feels a little small across the shoulders. When pilled tight, the hammocks length is now approximately 9’, perhaps a little long for using under a tarp (8’). This problem is reduced as when loaded the hammock bows down and out, pulling it in, moving the ends under the tarp. Spacing bars may be an useful addition i.e. wooden bars pinned across the top and bottom, holding the hammock apart (figure 4.20), this would also reduce its length. As the hammock can not be increased in length an improvement for the Mark-3 hammock would be to make it non-symmetrical i.e. making the top end wider, perhaps increasing the top four meshes per row.
Figure 4.18 : Expanding hammock width (left), Mark-1 hammock (right)
The main problem of using cotton cordage is it soaks up a lot of water when wet. To waterproof the cordage, natural materials could be used, however, for simplicity I used green external gloss paint, which seems to have done the job ok (time will tell). Tip, before painting, setup and sit in the hammock to tension the netting before waterproofing i.e. to remove any slack within the cord or knots. The best technique for painting I’ve found so far was to use your hands, rubbing the paint into cord with your fingers and palms. Tip, do this on a dry day with a good wind as it takes a while to dry i.e. soaks up quite a bit of paint, also to get the paint off your hands mix up a paste of sand, washing up liquid and white spirits.
Figure 4.19 : Mark-2 hammock
When making containers out of netting e.g. fishing section figure 7.9.2, I’ve found that hoops can be difficult to use i.e. feeding the net onto the hoops. Making a wooden hoop out of hazel isn’t too bad, can take a little time to coax the wood to bend into the required shape, heat and bend a section at a time. Place your thumbs on the back of the wood (tips touching), wrap your fingers over the front, pulling the wood down over your thumbs, be careful not to bend it too far i.e. avoid that sound of snapping wood fibres. Thin down the thicker end such that when overlapped with the thinner end a constant diameter is maintained, bind / whip into position. A simpler method of constructing a container is to use a wooden rod to pin / join the net into a tube i.e. feeding the edge meshes onto the rod. Construct hoop or triangle frames that can be placed into the net tube to form the required shape (expanded when in tube for a tight fit, hoops best as they don’t get tangled in the mesh), secured to the pinning rod with cord. Finish with additional side / cross bracing to increase strength.
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